Study Resources- section A

 Camera Angles, Movements, Shots

·      Extreme long/Establishing: set scene or establishing shot; outside; can be taken from as far away as quarter mile

·      Master: sets up scene showing key signifiers, contains main characters for the length of the shot

·      Long: shows images life size in context of distance between cinema screen and image. Height of a child 3-4 ft

·      Medium/Mid: shows a character from the waist up (two shot-two people) (three. Shot three people)

·      Over the shoulder taken ’over the shoulder’ of character, used to make the audience feel as though they are in the conversation/action. POV

·       POV: point of view, taken from view of person looking/speaking. A character looks off screen we then see what they are seeing

·      Close-up: shows a part of something

·      Extreme close up: even closer than close up, crates image larger than the eye would see

·      Wide: actor might appear very small against the landscape as the image gives a much wider view than the individual

·      Aerial: taken from high viewpoint, from a drone showing a Birds Eye view

·      High angle: taken from above a character/setting, creates sense of empowerment, diminished figure in frame

·      Low angle: taken from low angle, reinforce intimidation or disempowerment for the character with POV, creates overwhelming perspective

·      Canted/Dutch angle: taken from a tilted horizon, signify imbalance or uncertainty, aesthetic.

Camera Movements

Pan	A camera movement along a horizontal axis, with the camera body turning to the left or right on a stationary tripod.
Tilt	A camera movement along a vertical axis, with the camera body turning up or down on a stationary tripod.
Track	Any shot camera body moves forward, backward, or laterally. On wheeled support (dolly), or hand-held device like a steadicam.
Dolly	A camera support with wheels to facilitate tracking shots. The dolly may move on tracks, or freely on a smooth surface - hence 'dolly
Crane	A crane shot involves the camera being mounted on a crane or jib. It enables a wide, high perspective to be achieved, and large-scale tracking shots to be accomplished.
Steadicam	Camera stabilization device, become generic term for similar devices. smooth hand-held tracking shots.
Hand-held	Without use of steadicam, unpolished; involve slight movements, used usually to signify an immediacy and realism, very erratic movement to communicate peril and excitement.
Zoom	Increasing (zoom in) or decreasing (zoom out) the magnification of the object with the camera's lens.
Reverse zoom	Combination of tracking shot and zoom; tracks towards subject while zooming out at the same rate. Subject maintains a same position and size in frame, background shifts around them.  -often used to signify a turning point in the character's story. A similar effect is achieved by tracking backwards while zooming in.

 

Camera Emotions

Eye Level

The most common, basic, and neutral camera angle is taken at eye level. As the name would suggest, the camera is at the same height as most of the characters in the scene.

 

This puts the audience at their level, so the filmmaker is not using height to add drama, so it is often used in scenes in which the audience is getting background information, or perhaps the focus is on the characters themselves in the scene rather than the scenery. Or, at eye level, emotion and drama can be added through movement like:

 

• Hand-held shots, meaning the camera is literally in the cameraman's hand and therefore a little shaky. This makes the audience feel like they are included in the scene with a reality feel
  Zooming action, either slow or quick zoom-adds dramatic effect. In a dolly zoom, the zooming is sudden and indicates something bad is about to happen to that character.
• Arc shots mean the camera circles around the subject, really showing all sides of the person. You might feel like you are getting to know them better
  Tracking is when the camera follows the character, but not much else is moving
•  Pan shots slowly survey the scenery from one side to another, but a whip pan does it quickly like when a character turns their head. Filmmakers often add a sound to it.

• Locked-down shots are when even though action is clearly happening elsewhere, the cameraman keeps focus steadily on the same characters, who often do not even react, and you know that what they are doing or saying is most important.
• Over-the-Shoulder is when the camera is behind the character, and you can feel as though you are experiencing the scene with that person. It can also show you how close the characters are
  Point of View Shots can make you feel creepy. You feel like you were placed inside the person's eyes and are looking through that window with them, and they-do not know they are being watched the movie artist must also decide about framing. Eye level framing maybe:
  Close-ups, which are just focused on a character's face. It helps you feel whatever they are feeling.
  Two-shots, where two characters may be sitting side by side and you are hearing their conversation, like at a bar or dinner table, adding a level of intimacy
  Medium shots that allow you to only see the character from the waist up
  Long shots which show the entire body and can make you feel that character is very important and focused on their body language

• Cowboy shots are focused in on the mid-thigh of the character and close up, and you will feel that the characters are having a standoff

Bird's Eye View
This camera angle is taken from above and is often called an aerial shot. It can seem unnatural and strange; make you feel Godlike or more significant that what you are looking at below.

It can also make you feel small, if the scene below you are vast. Aerial shots at the beginning of movies often set the scene and allow the audience to take in a view or establish the setting.

At bird's eye view, the cinematographer can choose to add emotion or drama with movement, and some will be the same tactics as above, but from overhead. Some others are:

 

• Tilts, which is when the camera is down with the scene butt then moves steadily up to the ceiling or sky. This makes you feel like the scene, but more often the movie, is over
  Sequence shots - these are overlooking a scene, but there is no cutting of the scene. The camera just moves around from place to place and possibly angle to angle, and often the characters are unaware of things that are happening that the audience gets to see
• Zooming in or out, fast, or slow, can again, happen from overhead
• Top shots, which allow the audience to survey or assess a scene, but it is usually after a lot of action has happened and the point is to let you see and feel the aftermath

High Angle

High angle camera views are elevated and can show a unique perspective. It can make you feel like the characters are less significant or that we are just onlookers, not really involved in the emotion of the movie yet.

 

It could also be that the filmmaker is showing you a scene that is part of a bigger picture. Sometimes, when high angles are focused on one character alone, they may want to show a strong feeling or realization that character is having

 

Movement can become very important with high angle shooting. For example:

 

• Steadicam shots put the camera on hydraulics which allows it to be so balanced and smooth that it can follow a character a very long way, even downstairs and through winding hallways, without ever cutting the scene. It is like when a character is showing someone around, even if it is the audience

·      Sequence shots can also be filmed at a high angle

·      Bridging shots are simply to show elapsed time or a change of location. They may show a plane moving across a map or the hands of a clock quickly moving around a clock

Low Angle

A low angle shot is used to make you feel that the character is larger than he or she may really be. Often the camera will speed up the movement to give the audience a feeling of disorientation. At these angles, seeing the sky or ceiling is common. It may make you feel the character is dominant, important, heroic, or even more evil. It can also make a city look emptier.

Oblique or Canted Angle

This one is chosen by filmmakers who want to evoke imbalance, disorientation, a unique point of view, or instability.

This could be from the movement of a handheld camera, which can have the same effect. This is often called "tilt", where the scene is on or nearly on its side.

 

Use of Long Angles

Very Wide Shot

The amount of scene shown makes it, so the character is barely visible. The amount of the character shown is between a wide shot and an extreme wide shot. This is achieved by showing both the characters and the background and finding a balance between the two. With this, we can reap the benefits of both types of shots, adjusting the amount of the scene, while still having some of the focus on the character or object in the movie.

 

Extreme Wide Shot

The audience has been zoomed out so far that the objects and characters in the scene are no longer visible. This creates a feeling that the character became less and less significant compared to the world around them. The audience may feel that the character is lost or shrinking in importance.

 

Establishing Shot

This is going to be the first scene you see, as it shows a large location, scene, mountain, skyline, or body of water.

It may tell the setting of the movie but is from a bird's eye view and very general. Many movies begin with these, as a way to bring the audience in and set the mood.

 

Master Shot

This shot displays important characters and scenes, so it is often confused with the establishing shot. What makes it different is that the relevant characters usually spend the whole scene in the frame. It is also common for there to be little to no cuts in the scene, therefore keeping the audience focused on what is happening and the dialogue.

 

Notable Examples

Many directors use a variety of wide shots. One example is The Princess Bride (1987) when Princess Buttercup shoves her "sweet Wesley" down the vast hillside. They also show a wide shot of the Cliffs of Insanity. These types of scenes are used to show the impact of the action and how far they fell after she went tumbling after him.

The hills were alive in The Sound of Music, and the establishing shot at the beginning of the movie really set the scene for where the abbey was located. It was released in 1965 and directed by Robert Wise.

In the 1997 blockbuster hit by James Cameron, Titanic, would the scene showing the entire half of the ship, vertical in the freezing ocean have had the same impact with a close-up shot? That was definitely a money shot.

Think about Tom Hanks writing "HELP" on the beach in Castaway. Picture the Emerald City in The Wizard of Oz.

Imagine any of the Star Wars movies without long-shots of the outside of the ship. They just would have the same impact on the audience.

 

Recognizing a Long Shot

Often, there is confusion as some feel the category of long shots in films are hard to categorize. However, just remember that if you see an image approximately life-sized, so that on the screen it seems to be the overall size of the person or object, it is considered a long shot.

A long shot will show the entire body of the character and fill most of the scene, meaning the head is near the top and the feet stretch to the bottom of the screen. Focus being usually on the characters, often the background details are highly important for showing contrast or enhancing the characteristics of the person.

If you think about it, long shots are one of the most important ways for a photographer to capture the true essence

 

 

Boom: A shot filmed from a moving boom, incorporating different camera angles and levels.

Cameo shot: A shot in which the subject is filmed against a black or neutral background.

Choker: A tight close-up, usually only showing a subject's face.

Close shot: A shot in which the subject is shown from the top of the head to mid-waist.

Cutaway: A shot that is related to the main action of the scene but briefly leaves it, such as an audience member's

reaction to a show.

Dolly shot: A moving shot, accomplished by moving the camera as if on a set of tracks.

Extreme long shot: A wide angle shot from a great distance, such as an aerial or high angle shot of a location.

Flash: A very brief shot, often for shock effect.

Follow shot: A shot in which the camera follows the subject.

Freeze frame: A shot that results from repeating the same frame, so the subject appears frozen.

Full shot: A long shot that captures the subject's entire body head to toe.

Head-on shot: A shot where the action comes directly at the camera.

Medium long shot: A shot wider than a medium shot but longer than a wide shot.

Reaction shot: A close shot of a character reacting to something off camera.

Reverse angle shot: A shot that is the opposite of the preceding shot such as two characters in conversation.

Tight shot: A shot where the subject fills the whole frame.

 

EDITING

Understanding and Using Editing

·      Gestalt: a theory in Psychology that suggest, even though the mind only sees the parts, it fills in the gaps to create a whole.

·      Transitions-the method of moving from one shot to the next

·      cut, where one shot is instantaneously replaced with the next.

·      The fade-out is a gradual transformation of an image to black, and this technique is used to suggest time has passed but that the narrative is continuous (film trailers, ad/ commercial break)

·      A match cut, also called a graphic match, is a cut between either two different objects, two different spaces, or two different compositions in which objects in the two shots are similar in some way.

o   Strong continuity of action

·      A dissolve is a gradual transition from one image to another where the two shots appear on screen at the same time until one gradually vanishes.

o   Create mood and atmosphere

·      A wipe is a type of transition where one shot replaces another by traveling from one side of the frame to another

o   Make production look old-fashioned and outdated

·      An iris wipe takes the shape of a growing or shrinking circle.

o   Denote an eye

·      Continuity editing is the name given to the editing technique that creates the illusion of continuous time without showing everything that happens.

·      Elliptical editing and its purpose is to draw attention to the action and heighten tension. This technique is often used when a bomb is going to explode, and the editor makes a countdown of five seconds last much longer.

·      A very rapid move from one shot to another without showing a connecting shot is called a jump cut. It is a dramatic edit that breaks time and space continuity by drawing the viewer’s attention to the edit.

·      A montage is a useful way to convey a story using images without having to go into narrative detail

·      In a montage, a series of short shots are edited into sequence to condense space and time whilst still conveying information.

·      When lots of narrative information has to be put across to the audience quickly

 

Cinematography

·      The term ‘cinematography’ originally meant the art of motion picture photography and was used exclusively in reference to film. However, the term is now used more extensively to also include all moving image work on film, video and digital media

·      The cinematographer is usually credited as the Director of

·      Photography (DP) and they will be responsible for all creative decisions around camera shots, angles, and movements in addition to being in charge of the camera and lighting crews. The DP will work closely with the camera operators who will physically set up and use the cameras.

·      1st Assistant Camera operator is often referred to as the focus puller and it is their responsibility to ensure shots are crisp and clearly in focus unless otherwise directed

·      2nd Assistant Camera operator, who would be called the clapper loader in the UK, loads the film into the camera and operates the clapperboard at the start of each scene’s filming.

·      Eye-line match- With all shots of people, but especially with close shots, it is essential that the character’s eye-line is in the top third of the frame.

 

Types of video transitions

·      Digital effects-color replacement, animated effects, pixelation, focus drops, lighting effects, etc.

 

Editing terms

·      Continuity error-when action or elements of a scene don’t match across shots

o   When character breaks a glass window bit in a later shot the window is shown undamaged

·      Cross cutting-give the illusion that two story lines of action are happening at the same time by rapidly cutting back and forth between them

·      Editing-process of taking raw footage to select and combine shots to create a complete motion picture

·      J cuts- allows audience to first hear audio from a shot, and then see it

·      L cut-when the audio from the preceding scene continues to play over the footage from the following scene

·      Roll-graphics or text that moves up or down the screen. For credits

·      Rough cut-receives further polishing and editing before making its way out to audiences

·      Sequence shot-long take composed of one shot that extends for an entire scene or sequence. Requires complex camera movements and action

·      Shot reverse-alternating over the shoulder

·      Sweetening-adding sound effects and music and/or enhancing the existing audio with effects

5 Master Edits

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SOUND

Sound vocab

·      Diegetic sound: sound which has its source in the scene, or ‘world of the film’ (even if it is applied in post-production).

·      Non-diegetic sound: sound which does not have its source within the world of the film, for example, mood music, voice-over addressed to the audience.

·      Foley: sound effects produced to enhance the realism of actions in the scene, for example, footsteps, the clink of ice in a glass, the sound of a

kiss. Foley effects are always produced in post-production and diegetic

·      Harmony: refers to simultaneous or consecutive musical notes which sound pleasant. Well in the world

·      Dissonance: opposite of harmony, sounds harsh or unpleasant. Something is wrong or about to go wrong in the world

·      Pitch:frequency of sound.high pitch is aggression low pitch is ominous

·      Rhythm:recurring beat formed beat forming a pattern. May be rapid or slow regular or irregular producing different emotional effects

·      Room tone: recording of sound at the location of a shoot. Part of a soundscape to provide depth and atmosphere

·      Soundscape: collection of background sounds that reinforce realism.

·      Sound-bed: music played low in the mix in order to create mood or atmosphere

 

Sound

·      On-Screen refers to sound whose source can be seen in the frame. It is therefore, by definition, diegetic sound.

·      Off-Screen refers to sound that happens outside the frame. It is still diegetic though as it is happening in the world of the film.

·      Parallel refers to sound that fits in with and emphasizes the images on screen.

·      Contrapuntal refers to sound that works in opposition to, and comments on, the images on screen.

·      Sound Bridge: A sound effect or music cue that runs across a cut, smoothing the join and linking the two shots or scenes together.

·      Direct Sound is sound that was recorded at the time filming took place.

·      Post-Synchronized Sound is added after filming has taken place.

·      Foley Session: Virtually all sound effects are added to films in a Foley session. A Foley artist records sounds to accompany the film, ensuring the sounds match with the images on screen. By using post-synchronized sound in this way, the volume of each sound can be controlled so the audience’s attention can be directed to certain sounds. Other sounds can be reduced in volume or eliminated altogether.

·      The voice over is also non-diegetic and is used to give information to the audience quickly. Voice overs are often used by film makers as a last resort when they have struggled to communicate the story through other, more visual means.

·      Cue: A piece of music that has been written to begin and end at a specific point in a film or TV program.

·      non-diegetic music cues are used to highlight key moments in the narrative and help let the audience know how to react.

·       A camcorder with a separate mic input is very useful so you have the option to connect an additional microphone and headphones.

·      headphones to monitor your sound while you shoot.

·       boom pole is essential to get your microphone as close as possible to your actors without it appearing in the shot.

·      A suspension mount will isolate your microphone from the boom pole.

·      To combat this, use a ‘dead cat’ to cover your microphone. The fur is will absorb the wind and reduce the noise.

·      You may want to consider recording your sound on a completely separate device, such as a Zoom H4n. This will give you superior quality sound and means that your sound recorder can work independently of the camera operator.

·       You will need to clapperboard every shot if you work this way to ensure you can synchronizes the sound and visuals in the edit.

MISE-EN-SCENE

 

·      Character and narrative development, themes, ideologies and aesthetics are conveyed to audiences through careful composition of the visual elements recorded by the camera

·      “Putting in the scene”, “placing on the stage”, “everything you see on the screen”

·      Describe how sets, locations, props, costume and make-up are used in film

·      Camerawork and performance, setting, props, costume, lighting, acting, location

·      The use of real urban settings can add a sense  of realism to a drama, and danger and grit to a  crime or thriller.

·      Narrative exposition helps filmmakers reveal  crucial details about characters and plot through  visual means.

·      Set dressing can tell us who characters are and what events might have happened in their past.

·      Props signify different things about characters, depending on the context

·      Costumes can tell us who a character is their attitude and how they are feeling and how a character has changed over the course of a story

·      Color can act as a trigger for a certain emotion or link to other important moments. Linked with lighting and influences all areas of production design

·      Make-up is used to draw attention to or emphasizes the characters face including facial expression and emotions and intentions.

·      Special effects make up may be used to dramatically alter appearance

Mise-en-scene

·      Mise-en-Scene is a French term that means ‘to put in the scene’.

·      Everything that the audience can see on screen is part of the mise-en-scene.

·      Costume: What a character wears can have a huge influence over how the audience interprets that character. Clothes and accessories must be carefully chosen.

·      Location: The location is where in the world the action is to take place. For example, in a city or on a desert island. Directors can choose to shoot a scene on location or a purpose built studio set. Studios are more controllable, easier to film in and likely to be cheaper. Using real locations can add realism but may make for a complicated shoot and can be more expensive.

·      Setting: The settings are the specific places within the location where scenes are set, such as a nightclub or a school. Chosing where to set a scene can have a major impact on how the audience views the characters.

·      Scenery: Set dressing, or making a particular setting look a certain way, is an important part of the production process.

·      Props: Props are objects used in the set dressing and giving a character a prop to hold or use can be a way of adding character as well as developing the narrative.

·      Lighting: How scenery, characters and props are lit can affect how the audience sees them. With careful placement of lights, the audience’s attention can be directed to a specific part of the mise-en-scene.

·      Actors: Casting the right actor for the part is crucial, not just for their acting ability, but also for the ‘look’ they bring to the character. This is also very important for extras, who are essentially human scenery. How the actors are arranged within the frame is also important.

·      Framing: The positioning of actors and props within the setting is important so that the camera picks up exactly what is needed to get meaning across to the audience.

 

GENRE

·      Action: Action films usually feature high energy, physical stunts and chases with
rapid pacing, often created via fast editing. Action films tend to feature
rescues, battles, fights, escapes and destruction. Storylines tend to be full of
adventure and often span multiple locations with adventurous and characters
are generally often “two-dimensional” in being fairly basic and suiting broad
stereotypes. Action films are designed for escapism and can also feature
fantastical action or stories. Spy/espionage films will fit into this genre as well
as superhero films, martial arts films and disaster films.

·      Adventure: Adventure films are exciting stories, with interesting experiences and set
pieces set in a variety of exotic locales. Whilst featuring many similar aspects
to the action genre, adventure films tend to see characters traveling around
trying to find a Macguffin. These films can include traditional swashbucklers,
serialized films, expeditions for lost continents, explorations of jungles,
deserts or even space, treasure hunts and any other form of “search” or “hunt”

·      Comedy: Comedies are light-hearted films that are deliberately designed to amuse and provoke laughter (with one-liners, jokes, etc.) by exaggerating language,
situations, action, characters, actions and relationships. Through the history
of filmmaking comedies have developed and varied and sub-genres nclude
screwball, slapstick, spoofs and parodies, romantic comedies, absurdity and
body-swaps as well as many others.

·      Crime and Gangster: criminals. These can include organized crimes that involve gangsters or “mobsters”. Other characters include bank robbers, underworld characters or figures, hoodlums, petty criminals, gang members and Kingpins who operate outside the law, stealing and murdering their way through life. Criminal and
gangster films can also include the classic film noir or detective-mystery films,
as well as serial-killer films and many ‘police procedural’ films which follow
the role of the police and detectives as they seek to punish those on the
wrong side of the law with the audience following how they go about catching the criminals

·      Drama: Dramas are serious films. They are driven by intense plots that aim to portray realistic characters, settings, situations and stories that involve intense
character development. Dramas tend to eschew special-effects or action
though some of these elements may feature. Traditionally, dramatic films are
probably the largest film genre but perhaps because it is a very broad genre
that can apply to a wide range of sub genres. Some examples include
melodramas, epics (historical dramas), or romantic genres. Dramatic
biographical films (or "biopics") are a major sub-genre

·      Horror: Horror films are designed to frighten and to invoke our worst fears. Horror
films often provide a cathartic experience and the use of a terrifying and/or
shocking finale is key to this. Horror films cover a wide variety of style and
sub-genres, from the earliest silent films that used lighting and shadow to
create the sense of a malevolent threat, to modern CGI monsters and hyper-
real humans with detailed special effects. Horror films are very flexible films
in terms of story and genre, meaning that they can be set in space as a sci-fi
film, with the menace or monster coming from another planet, or when Earth
is threatened by aliens. More traditional horror films however include the
slasher film, serial killer films, zombies, mutated monster films and traditional
folk tales turned into something even more ghoulish, such as vampires and
sea creatures

·      Musical: Musical/dance films are cinematic experiences that use full-scale scores or
song and dance routines as part of the narrative. Often, they use the song
and dance as a way to help explain the story and develop the narrative, as
well as explore the emotions of a character. Musicals were once a very
popular genre in Hollywood and continue to be in other cultures and cinema
across the world, but they’ve influenced the way that choreography and
staging is used across a wide variety of genres including the martial arts
genre and the romantic comedy. Major sub-genres include the musical
comedy or the concert film.

·      Westerns: Westerns were one of the first major genres of the American film industry,
helping to define the days of the expansive American frontier and ultimately,
the death of it. They are one of the oldest, most enduring genres with very
recognizable plots, elements, and characters (six-guns, horses, dusty towns
and trails, cowboys, Indians, etc.). Over time, westerns have been re-defined,
re-invented and expanded, dismissed, re-discovered, and spoofed

·      Science fiction: Sci-fi films are imaginative, visionary and often fiercely ambitious films. Many
are set in space or the future and tend to feature morally-sound heroes and
shadowy villains. Key elements include aliens, distant planets, impossible
quests, improbable settings and fantastical technology. Elements cut as
dangerous technology and power and extraordinary monsters or other are
often created by mad scientists or megalomaniacs with vast ambitions. They
are sometimes an offshoot of fantasy films or superhero films and share
some similarities with action/adventure films, especially in the use of key
action set-pieces. Science fiction often expresses the potential of technology
to improve or destroy humankind

 

MEDIA LANGUAGE

·      Media forms: Different types of media products, such as films, TV programs, magazines, radio programs.

·      Media platforms: A term which has arisen to account for the various convergent combinations of old and new media, for
example, Amazon, Netflix and iPlayer are internet platforms for distributing and exhibiting TV and film. A
platform is a technological space in which media can be consumed

·      Media franchise: The capacity to extend the life of characters, settings or trademarks by producing further products, usually in
popular genres such as super-hero or action.

·      Iconography: The Icons are particular signs that are powerfully associated with something else, such as religious icons. By
extension, in media, icons are signs we associate with particular genres (e.g. technology for sci-fi, saloon
doors for westerns)

·      Intertextuality: Within a text, visual or audio references are made to other texts. It is expected that audiences will recognize such references, although more obscure references will require different repertoires of experience in the audience